MEM refers to the relationship between an ethnic minority and society and nature. The composite reliability was computed to test the internal consistency or suitability of each latent variable. Most values exceeded the critical level of 0.
Then we conducted an SEM, and the results of fit indices are presented in line 3 of the two panels of Table 5. By comparison, the fit indices of the two four-factor models were poorer than that of the six-factor models, but most were acceptable. Table 5. Furthermore, a multiple-group comparison was conducted between the minority groups from the minority-inhabited areas and minority-scattered areas to test measurement invariance of the internal structure of ethnic-minority-values and behaviors models by the multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis MG-CFA.
Lines 2 and 3, in the top and bottom panels of Table 5 respectively, presented the fit indexes of sample models across settlement areas.
The final two lines of the two panels respectively presented Goodness-of-fit results of invariant factor loadings and structural invariance. These results provided preliminary support for our view that ethnic-minority-values could be conceptualized and represented by ways of ethnicity. As expected, both initial questionnaire data indicated the multidimensional constructs that represented six correlated first-order specific factors.
Although values are generally considered to comprise what is important to people in life, there appear to be distinct manifestations of ethnicity-related views and behaviors. The test results of measurement invariance provided evidences of two better-fitting models of the CMEVQ and CMEVEBQ; combining the conceptual contents of ethnic-minority-value and value-expressive behavior, both six-factor models were appropriate and parsimonious for use in Study 2.
As for the lower internal consistency of the MEM value subscale, this may be related to small items or its poor domain representation, and requires further verification. In particular, studies that value manipulations affect subsequent behaviors in value-consistent directions e.
This study did not assess causality, but did statistically test the relationship between ethnic values and their postulated behaviors. We expected that ethnic behaviors would be more strongly correlated with their related ethnic values than with other values. In the sample, The parents of The IIS consisted of seven Venn-like diagrams, with pairs of circles varying in their degree of overlap. As a single-item measure, the IIS proved to be a valid and reliable measure to assess ingroup identification.
We used it to quickly measure the level of identification for ethnic minority members to their own minority ingroup.
It was also particularly suitable for multi-minority ethnic group memberships. The CMACIQ consisted of two higher-order factors, six first-order factors, and 34 items, and was rated on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. We only used three of the first-order factors, Preference for Ethnic Things e. The Spearman-Brown split-half and test-retest correlations exceeded 0. The internal reliability of the three facets used in this study were 0.
The ESC had three items. The internal reliability was high in this study, at 0. It included four subscales and 16 items on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 strongly disagree to 7 strongly agree. We adopted three subscales: Membership Esteem four items, e. Reliability analyses revealed substantial alphas of their subscales ranging from 0. The three subscale alphas in this study were 0. To explore the characteristics of ethnic-minority-value and value-expressive behavior in multiethnic contexts, we mainly sampled indigenous ethnic minorities from ethnic communities in Southwest China, the region with the highest minority ethnic population, the most complex ethnic composition, and the richest and most diverse ethnic culture, mainly in Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, and Chongqing.
Specifically, according to the Chinese sixth population census data Chinese National Bureau of Statistics, , there are 25 minority ethnic groups who have lived for generations in Yunnan Province alone, accounting for To ensure minority ethnic diversity, several Minzu schools, mainly colleges and universities, in Southwest China, were determined as the sampling units. The survey was conducted with the help of school administrators who forwarded our online survey to classes with a more balanced gender ratio of minority ethnic students.
It took participants approximately 20 min to complete the set of scales and demographic questions, and they were allowed to pause the surveys and return them within 3 days. We paid 10 Yuan RMB for each completed survey. A total of surveys were completed, and the effective survey rate was We dealt with the reverse scoring items in the CSE, and computed the mean scores for each of the subscales of all questionnaires, except for the IIS. Despite the internal consistency of several factors being somewhat below the desired level, they were acceptable for subscales with fewer than five items apiece Nunnally and Bernstein, We rechecked the goodness of fit of the two models in Study 1.
All indices were better except for the Norm Chi-square for the CMEVQ, which was higher than desired but still acceptable at a critical level of 5 Lomax and Schumacker, Some indexes were lower than those of the six-factor model, but most were acceptable. This suggested that the four-factor models of the two newly developed questionnaires were also applicable in practice.
We conducted Pearson correlations between the existing ethnic variables with equivalent or overlapping conceptual content and 12 new variables to examine the criterion validity. This indicated that the subscales of the two minority ethnic questionnaires have observable convergent and discriminant validity. Table 6. Means and standard deviations of the subscales, and Pearson correlations among the scales in Study 2.
We further examined the discriminant validity of the two questionnaires with a K-means cluster analysis, using IIS rating as a clustering variable. The participants were divided into three clusters according to the distances between the final cluster centers of 1.
The results suggest that stronger ethnicity may exist in minority ethnic participants whose parents were of the same minority ethnic group, who were from minority-inhabited areas, or who were born in rural areas e. Table 7. Generally, men tended to leave their families and original ethnic settlements to find employment, and they had access to more external cultures than their own; women, on the other hand, were more likely to stay at home and to stay in contact with and inherit more indigenous ethnic culture Phinney, This may lead to men gradually leaving behind ethnic indigenous context and weakening their ethnic consciousness.
Men also tended to think that it was valuable to have good relationships with other ethnic groups Tu, , p. Parental ethnicity and family residence area i. Specifically, there may be stronger ethnicity for ethnic minorities living in rural, ethnic gathered-residence areas, and for families with parents of the same ethnic group, than those living in urban, ethnic scattered-residence areas, and families with parents of different ethnic groups. Parents of the same minority speak the same language, have common customs, and attend shared festivals with their children wearing ethnic clothing.
These behaviors as ethnic symbols usually occur more diversely and frequently in minority gathered-residence areas, so ethnicity in such a context is strengthened and passed down from generation to generation. By comparison, parents of different ethnic groups would choose whether or not to follow their own ethnic customs according to the needs of the family, which was also applicable to minority dispersed-residence areas represented by mainstream culture or multicultural values.
Ethnic minorities living in dispersed-residence areas perceive the possibility of engaging in ethnic behaviors by a small number of their own ethnic members including themselves in a non-indigenous ethnic context, based on the available resources and opportunities for such behaviors Theory of Planned Behavior; Tesser and Shaffer, Furthermore, due to geographical remoteness and slow economic development, minority ethnic culture in rural areas was affected less by mainstream and external culture and remained relatively complete and unique; thus, minorities there have a higher ethnic identity than those living in more modern and multicultural urban areas Ji and Li, Accordingly, a family with parents of the same ethnic group, a social context of ethnic gathered-residence, and a closed area away from multicultural influences may be factors that promote enhanced ethnicity.
Interestingly, the developed subscales of the CMEVQ and CMEVEBQ presented significant differences in the three demographic variables, which supported the few existing conclusions and provided more accurate descriptions of ethnic-minority-values and behaviors.
Regarding religious affiliation, only In fact, natural religion exists widely among the ethnic minorities of Southwest China, the source of our study sample, and is closely integrated into the daily lives of minority ethnic people. Furthermore, these ethnic groups still tend to personify natural forces and frequently hold various related activities Lu, It may be said that our minority ethnic participants who adhere to the tenets of Islam, Christianity or Buddhism also remain faithful to the natural religions passed down by their own ethnic ancestors.
The two types of belief coexist in the same minority ethnic group or even the same ethnic member, and continue for a long time. In determining how ethnicity is presented in such cases, our results found that despite fewer participants reporting to be religious believers, believers scored higher than non-believers on 9 out of 10 positive dimensions, both for ethnic-minority-values and value-expressive behaviors.
Thus, religion may contribute to ethnic identity and enhance minority ethnic ethnicity. These findings also confirmed the construct and external validity of the two newly developed questionnaires and increased our confidence in using this dimension alone to check the ethnicity of ethnic members.
Regarding ethnic-minority-value—behavior correlations, as shown in Table 6 , all Pearson correlations on the diagonal axis were significant. Two MEE and MEIH of six minority ethnic-minority-values correlated most strongly with their corresponding ethnic-minority-behaviors than with the other five sets of behavior. This suggests that minority ethnic individuals who are psychologically or practically distant from their own minority ethnic groups have lower self-perception as members of those groups, seldom seek opportunities to explore their ethnic knowledge subjectively, and are indifferent as to care whether their own ethnicity is passed down through the generations.
This supports the result in Wan and Wang that negative ethnic identity was positively correlated with cultural separation of groups. Moreover, such ethnic members themselves have been almost integrated into mainstream culture, as well having no self-perceived differences between their own ethnic group and others, which was also what the MEM facet meant. To further verify their relationship, we also checked the predictive roles of ethnic values to its corresponding ethnic behaviors see Table 8.
Separately, with each of the six behavior subscales as the target variable, the predictors entered in the multiple regression comprised the six value subscales. Four of the six predictors, that is MEE, MEIV, MEA, and MEIH, explained the most variance of its postulated behavior and this added new statistical evidence that value is correlated most strongly with behavior in value-consistent directions, just as Schwartz and Butenko validated in the Russian context and Schwartz et al.
This is consistent with the literature stating that respondents with higher IIS scores tended to report that their behaviors are more influenced by ingroup members than those with lower IIS scores Tropp and Wright, Table 8. Regression of ethnic minority value factors on minority value-expression behavior only predictive independent variables that are significant or marginally significant.
Most ethnic values may predict ethnic behaviors either together or separately, suggesting that the two new questionnaires are well-matched and can even be mutually validated variables. There may be several reasons for this. Mastery as a cultural value orientation is the correlated polar dimension of harmony. In contrast to harmony, which emphasizes fitting into the social and natural world or acceptance rather than change, mastery encourages active self-assertion to attain group or personal goals Schwartz, Ethnicity for minority ethnic groups requires changing to adapt to social development in order to achieve ethnic inheritance, rather than fitting into it Verkuyten, The MEM dimension in this study aimed to assess how to deal with the relationship between a minority ethnic group and the external world through ethnic values and value-expressive behaviors.
However, ethnic mastery is difficult to represent with only a few value items and typical behavioral instantiation, as the concept is too broad e. Furthermore, the harmonious and reciprocal relations among Chinese ethnic groups have not positioned this as a necessary issue among minority ethnic populations, suggesting that this needs to be examined in more empirical ethnic studies.
Another reason may be poor content representation of the MEM facet. Individuals can have a strong sense of belonging to a group and yet not necessarily be engaged in daily ethnic activities Phinney and Ong, Finally, individuals and groups have different value priorities or hierarchies, and will differ in their use of the response scales, especially among cross-cultural samples Schwartz, This is also a possible explanation for the low alpha reliabilities obtained in the current study, as the participants in the Study 2 represented nearly 40 Chinese ethnic minorities.
Several limitations to the current research need to be noted, and addressed in future studies. First, our participants required at least primary education to complete this survey independently, and this excluded some ethnic minorities who have poor education levels but may have many contacts with their ethnic cultures and have strong ethnicity.
In addition, this study was mainly limited to college students without consideration of age and professional factors; thus, future studies should examine the ethnic values and ethnic behavior model and their metric properties in other minority ethnic populations. Second, in view of smaller samples for particular groups or totally unequal population ratio for diverse groups, the validity of the new questionnaires cannot be verified between minority ethnic groups.
In future work, we plan to adopt a stratified sampling procedure to predetermine the size of each minority ethnic group to try to balance the population number between groups. Third, the current study investigated the statistical relationship between ethnic values and its corresponding behaviors. In future studies, it is necessary to test its causal relationship through the priming approach. Fourth, B-MEM had a lower internal consistency in newly developed scales than the generally agreed criteria, and several higher inter-factor correlations appeared in the CMEVQ.
In view of the need for the external validity of the two newly developed scales, we retained the factors to further explore their content in future studies. Rating from other observers on ethnic-minority-values and value-expressive behaviors may further our understanding of this domain; therefore, future studies may build the relation of self-rating to other-rating to reduce the response bias of participants as much as possible.
The questionnaires advance previous measures by separately including the values and behavioral descriptions expressing the importance of ethnicity as covered by their six shared subscales within two focused and practical instruments of 18 items each.
The results of associations between ethnic-minority-values and value-expressive behavior by Pearson correlation and multiple regression provided further statistical and sample evidence that values serves as a guide of behavioral tendencies. In addition, EMA, as an assumed factor of cognitive unimportance in ethnicity, was negatively correlated with all variables of cognitive importance in ethnicity in this study, which enhanced the credibility of the other five shared factors in measuring ethnic-minority-values and their corresponding behaviors.
Therefore, the ethnicity of a minority ethnic member is a significant component of their overall self-construal, and they can automatically categorize themselves and others into different groups in terms of ethnicity. In conclusion, the current research provides statistical support and a method to practically measure the values and value-expressive behaviors of ethnic minorities, as well as develops a new path to represent the importance of ethnicity for ethnic minorities and extends the research field on value theory.
All of these have contributed to passing down the cultural uniqueness of ethnic minorities and to further in-depth research by researchers and practitioners in the ethnological field.
The current status of the CMEVQ and CMEVEBQ suggests that these measures can be useful tools to facilitate understanding of the importance of ethnicity by ethnic-minority-values and value-expressive behaviors in broad strokes. The two questionnaires can be used alone or together.
Further, the two sets of items were sufficiently heterogeneous to cover the importance and common contents of minority ethnic cultures and behavioral manifestations.
As values and behaviors are concrete concepts that involve specific content, such as tradition, achievement, or power Schwartz, ; Schwartz et al. These subscale scores could be used together in the same analyses to represent diverse domains of importance of ethnicity for ethnic minorities. The item content of the newly developed questionnaires in this study are shown in Tables 3 , 4 , respectively. Their instructions are as follows:. Here, we briefly describe different people.
Please read the following statements carefully and consider how much the person described is or is not like you. Rate the extent to which the person described is like you, using the following scale: 1 not like me to 6 very much like me. Here, we briefly describe different ethnic behaviors. Please read the following statements carefully and rate the behavior that best describes how often you have engaged in the behavior relative to your opportunities to do so, on the following scale: 0 never to 4 always.
If you think you have never had even one opportunity to do the described behavior, mark the behavior with an X. The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author. All studies in this article were recommended and approved by the Ethics Committee of Southwest University.
All participants were informed of the survey purpose and told that their responses were voluntary, confidential, and for research purposes only. They provided online informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. After completion, participants were paid for their participation and invited to contact the researcher if they had any further questions about the study.
YY designed the study, collected and analyzed the data, and drafted the initial manuscript. FL participated in the design of the questionnaires. FQ contributed to the data analyses. GJ and KY participated in issuing and collecting the questionnaires. YZ provided the critical comments and contributed to the revision. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript for submission.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Abrams, D.
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Modeling 6, 1— Ji, Y. What is Ethnic and Racial Identity? Ethnic and racial identities are important for many young people, particularly those who are members of minority groups. These dimensions of the self may instill feelings of: Belonging to a particular group or groups Identification with that group; shared commitment and values Ethnic identity develops in adolescence and is passed from one generation to the next through customs, traditions, language, religious practice, and cultural values.
Our ethnic and racial identities are also influenced by the popular media, literature, and current events. Ethnic identity may play a larger role among minority youth because they experience the contrasting and dominant culture of the majority ethnic group. Youth who belong to the majority ethnic culture may not even recognize or acknowledge their ethnic identity [2].
Phinney has proposed a three-stage model for adolescent ethnic identity development [2]. These stages do not correspond to specific ages, but can occur at any time during early to late adolescence. Individuals may spend their entire lives at a particular stage of ethnic identity development [2, 5]. Unexamined or diffused ethnic identity: During this stage, the adolescent does not consider the personal meaning of ethnic identity.
Adolescents can easily transition to adulthood without forming a sense of ethnic identity, particularly if they are members of the dominant culture. Moratorium: During this stage, the adolescent actively searches for the meaning of his or her own ethnicity. This may involve researching ethnic group history, learning the language, and participating in cultural activities. Exploration of ethnicity is often triggered by an incident or event, such as a significant world event that is related to the ethnic group, or the death of an elderly family member.
Achieved: After a period of exploration, the adolescent now feels secure in his or her sense of ethnic identity. Ethnic identity now becomes an important dimension of self-identity. Racial Identity Statuses The classic model of racial identity development was developed by psychologist William Cross.
Cross was careful to argue that his model refers to identity statuses rather than stages, because stages imply a linear progression of steps which may not occur for all adolescents [6].
The four identity statuses may occur at any time during adolescence. Pre-encounter: At this point, the adolescent may not be consciously aware of her race and how it may affect her life. Encounter: The adolescent has an encounter that provokes thought about the role of racial identification in his life.
This may be a negative or positive experience related to race. For minority adolescents, this experience is often a negative one in which they experience racism for the first time.
Immersion: After an encounter that forces the adolescent to confront racial identity, a period of exploration, similar to Phinney's moratorium for ethnic identity development, follows. The adolescent may search for information about racial identity, and will also learn about racial identity through interaction with peers of the same race. Psychologist Beverly Tatum argues that it is important for racial minority youth to learn the meaning of their racial identity and be with others who share their experiences.
Rather than seeing this as self-segregation, Tatum points out that this can teach them to cope as a member of a racial minority within a dominant culture [7]. Internalization and Commitment: At this point, the adolescent has developed a secure sense of racial identity and is comfortable socializing both within and outside the racial group he or she identifies with.
Stages of ethnic identity development in minority group adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, Reflections on the dissent of contemporary youth, International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 51,
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